Phytoestrogens: Unlocking the Power of Plant Based Estrogens

Shanmugaloga S; Shilpa P N

doi:10.21760/jaims.9.6.25

E-ISSN:2456-3110

Review Article

Phytoestrogens

Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences

2024 Volume 09 Number 06 JUNE

Publisher

www.maharshicharaka.in

Phytoestrogens: Unlocking the Power of Plant Based Estrogens

Shanmugaloga S¹, Shilpa P N²

DOI:10.21760/jaims.9.6.25

¹ Shanmugaloga S, Post Graduate Scholar, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Shalya Tantra, Government Ayurveda Medical College and Hospital, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.

² Shilpa P N, Professor, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Shalya Tantra, Government Ayurveda Medical College and Hospital, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.

Phytoestrogens, naturally occurring plant compounds with estrogen-like activity, have garnered significant attention for their potential health benefits in both males and females. These compounds, found in a variety of foods such as soybeans, flaxseeds, and whole grains, mimic the action of estrogen in the body by binding to estrogen receptors. In females, phytoestrogens have been particularly noted for their role in alleviating menopausal symptoms. They can help reduce hot flashes, night sweats, and vaginal dryness, offering a natural alternative to hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Furthermore, phytoestrogens have been linked to a reduced risk of osteoporosis by promoting bone health and improving bone density, crucial for postmenopausal women. Males also benefit significantly from phytoestrogens. Studies suggest that these compounds can help maintain prostate health and reduce the risk of prostate cancer by inhibiting the growth of cancer cells. Additionally, phytoestrogens have been associated with improved cardiovascular health in both genders. They contribute to lowering cholesterol levels and improving arterial function, thereby reducing the risk of heart disease. Beyond these benefits, phytoestrogens possess potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, enhancing overall immune function and potentially offering protective effects against certain chronic diseases such as diabetes and obesity. Their ability to modulate hormone levels without significant side effects makes them a promising component of a balanced diet for long-term health maintenance. This study attempts to compile foods high in phytoestrogens and herbs used in Ayurvedic medicine with its super benefits.

Keywords: Phytoestrogens, Ayurvedic herbs, phytoestrogen diet, natural estrogens

Corresponding Author	How to Cite this Article	To Browse
S Shanmugaloga, Post Graduate Scholar, Department of Post Graduate Studies in Shalya Tantra, Government Ayurveda Medical College and Hospital, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. Email:	Shanmugaloga S, Shilpa P N, Phytoestrogens: Unlocking the Power of Plant Based Estrogens. J Ayu Int Med Sci. 2024;09(06):164-174. Available From https://jaims.in/jaims/article/view/3273

Manuscript Received	Review Round 1	Review Round 2	Review Round 3	Accepted
2024-04-09	2024-04-19	2024-04-29	2024-05-09	2024-05-17
Conflict of Interest	Funding	Ethical Approval	Plagiarism X-checker	Note
Authors state no conflict of interest.	Non Funded.	The conducted research is not related to either human or animals use.	14.12	All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

© 2024by Shanmugaloga S, Shilpa P Nand Published by Maharshi Charaka Ayurveda Organization. This is an Open Access article licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ unported [CC BY 4.0].

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Download PDF Back To Article Introduction Conclusion References

Shanmugaloga S. et al. Phytoestrogens: Unlocking the Power of Plant Based Estrogens

Introduction

Estrogens: Estrogens are a group of steroid sex hormones found both in males and females, that play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics.^[1,2]

Estrogen predominantly present in females than males, their levels fluctuate throughout a woman's life, rising during puberty, peaking during the reproductive years, and declining during menopause. Consistently high or low levels of estrogen may indicate an underlying health condition.^[2,3]

Estrogens are also used as medications, such as in menopausal hormone therapy to alleviate symptoms of menopause and in hormonal birth control to prevent pregnancy. However, hormone therapy may increase the risk of certain medical problems, such as blood clots and breast cancer. In addition to their natural occurrence, estrogens can also be found in the environment as xenoestrogens, which are synthetic compounds that mimic the effects of estrogens and can potentially disrupt the endocrine system, while phytoestrogens, which are naturally occurring substances, help the body function better when estrogen deficiency occurs.

figure 1: Structure of Estrogen

Types

There are four main types of estrogen.^[2,3]

Estrone (E1): This is the primary type of estrogen in males. It is also the primary form of estrogen in females after menopause. The ovaries, placenta, testicles, and fat tissue produce estrone from androstenedione or androgens.
Estradiol (E2): This is the most potent form of estrogen, and its concentration is highest in females of childbearing age. Doctors use this form of estrogen as a marker for ovary health.

Estriol (E3): The placenta produces this type of estrogen, which reaches peak levels during pregnancy. The amount of estriol increases as the fetus grows.
Estetrol: produced only during pregnancy

Sources

Estrogens: Produced in the ovaries primarily in women, for men in testes, with small amounts from the adrenal glands and fat tissue.^[1]

Importance of Estrogens:^[3,4,5,6]
Estrogens are a group of hormones that play a crucial role in various physiological processes in the body. Here are the benefits of estrogens and their actions in detail:

Reproductive Health

Puberty and Sexual Development: Estrogens are responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics, such as breast growth, pubic hair, and axillary hair, during puberty
Menstrual Cycle Regulation: Estrogens regulate the menstrual cycle, ensuring regular ovulation and menstruation.
Fetal Development: Estrogens support fetal development during pregnancy, particularly in the first trimester. Also, maintains the health of the placenta during pregnancy
Menopause: Estrogens help regulate the transition into menopause, reducing the risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease
Vaginal Health: Estrogens maintain vaginal health by promoting the growth of vaginal tissue and maintaining the pH balance of the vagina.

jaims_3273_03
figure 2: Estrogen Synthesis in Body

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In males

Modulation of Libido and Erectile Function: Estradiol helps regulate libido and erectile function in men. It is essential for maintaining normal sexual function and performance.
Spermatogenesis: Estrogens, particularly estradiol, modulate spermatogenesis at multiple levels, including hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis, Leydig cells, Sertoli cells, and germ cells. This regulation is both inhibitory and stimulatory, indicating a complex balance.
Estradiol synthesis is increased in areas related to sexual arousal in brain, indicating its involvement in sexual behaviour and arousal.
Penile Function: Estrogen receptors are found throughout corpus cavernosum, particularly around neurovascular bundles, which suggests a role in maintaining penile function and blood flow.
Local Production: In males, estradiol is produced locally by Leydig and Sertoli cells in testes, as well as through aromatization of testosterone in peripheral organs.
Role in Brain Development: Local production of estradiol in male cerebellum is important for vestibular-ocular reflex adaptation.

Bone Health

Bone Density: Estrogens help maintain bone density, reducing the risk of osteoporosis and fractures.
Bone Strength: Estrogens promote bone strength by regulating calcium and vitamin D levels.

Cardiovascular Health

Blood Pressure Regulation: Estrogens help regulate blood pressure, reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Cholesterol Levels: Estrogens lower cholesterol levels, reducing risk of cardiovascular disease.

Brain Health

Neuroprotection: Estrogens have neuroprotective effects, reducing risk of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
Memory and Learning: Estrogens improve memory and learning by promoting growth of new neurons and neural connections.

Skin and Hair Health

Skin Health: Estrogens promote skin health by regulating collagen production and improving skin elasticity.
Hair Growth: Estrogens promote hair growth by regulating the growth cycle of hair follicles.

Other Benefits

Mood Regulation: Estrogens regulate mood, reducing the risk of depression and anxiety. Estrogen is positively associated with serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter that regulates mood. Estrogen receptors are present in various brain regions, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex, which are involved in mood regulation. Estrogen can modulate the activity of these regions, influencing mood and emotional processing.
Immune System Regulation: Estrogens regulate the immune system, reducing the risk of autoimmune diseases.

Levels of Estrogen:^[7,8]

In women

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	Estrone (E1)	Estradiol (E2)
Before puberty	Undetectable to 29 pg/ml	Undetectable to 20 pg/ml
During puberty	20 – 200 pg/ml	Undetectable to 350 pg/ml
Before menopause	17 – 200 pg/ml	15 – 350 pg/ml
After menopause	7 – 40 pg/ml	Less than 10 pg/ml

Signs and symptoms of high estrogen levels in women
In females, having too much estrogen may cause:

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weight gain, especially around the hips and waist
Irregular menses
worse PMS than usual
fatigue
fibroids in the uterus
fibrocystic breast lumps
low sex drive
low mood or anxiety

Additional possible symptoms include:

bloating
headaches
disrupted sleep
hair loss

In men

	Estrone (E1)	Estradiol (E2)
Before puberty	Undetectable to 16 pg/ml	Undetectable to 13 pg/ml
During puberty	Undetectable to 60 pg/ml	Undetectable to 40 pg/ml
Age 18 years and over	10 – 60 pg/ml	10 – 40 pg/ml

Signs and symptoms of high estrogen levels in men

In males, having too much estrogen may cause:

Gynecomastia
Erectile Dysfunction
Infertility

Complications of high estrogen levels

If a person has consistently high estrogen for an extended period, this increases their risk of:

High blood pressure
blood clots
hypocalcemia,
breast cancer
cervical cancer
High estrogen may also worsen pre-existing conditions, such as asthma or epilepsy.
high levels of free estriol have an increased risk of gestational diabetes in pregnancy.

Low level of estrogen women:
The most common reason for low estrogen in women is menopause or surgical removal of the ovaries.

Symptoms of low estrogen include:

Menstrual periods that are less frequent or that stop
Hot flashes
Trouble sleeping
Vaginal dryness and thinning
menstrual migraine

Men: Low estrogen in men can cause excess belly fat and low sexual desire

Synthesis of Estrogen:^[2]

Estrogens: Endogenous estrogen is produced and released directly into the bloodstream for systemic effects.

jaims_3272_5
Figure 3: mechanism of synthesis of estrogen

Table 1: Estrogen Receptors and Sites of Action^[9]

Estrogen Receptor	Sites of Action
ER-α	Uterus, breasts, bones, and hypothalamus
ER-β	Ovaries, prostate, lungs, and cardiovascular system

Estrogens: Bind to estrogen receptors in various tissues to regulate gene expression and physiological functions.

Disadvantages:

May cause side effects such as hot flashes and mood swings
May increase the risk of certain cancers
May interact with other medications.

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Phytoestrogen

Phytoestrogens are plant-derived compounds that mimic estrogen's activity in the body. The structure of phytoestrogens is characterized by a close structural similarity to estrogens, allowing them to act as estrogenic factors and interfere with hormonal signaling.^[8][9] Phytoestrogens are naturally occurring compounds found in plants and are classified into different classes based on their chemical structure. The main classes of phytoestrogens include isoflavones, lignans, and stilbenes, can interact with estrogen receptors, mimicking estrogen's effects but with lower potency.

jaims_3273_05

Consumed through diet- plant-based sources, absorbed in the digestive system, and can exert estrogenic effects in the body.
Can provide benefits like relief from hot flashes, potential cancer protection, and cardiovascular health support.
Offer benefits like relief from menopausal symptoms and potential cancer protection but may interact with medications and have varying effects.^[10]

Types of Phytoestrogens
Based on the provided sources, the chemical structure of phytoestrogens is characterized by a phenolic ring and two hydroxyl groups, which are crucial for binding to estrogen receptors (ER).

Phytoestrogens are classified into three main classes: Flavonoids, lignans, and stilbenes. Flavonoids have a typical structure of C6-C3-C6, with two aromatic rings joined by a chain of 3 carbons cycled through an oxygen atom. The subclasses of flavonoids include isoflavonoids (isoflavones and coumestans), flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols (catechins), flavanones, chalcones, and anthocyanins.

The chemical structure of phytoestrogens, is crucial for their interaction with estrogen receptors and their estrogenic or antiestrogenic effects (i.e.; amphoteric effects) in the body.

The structural similarity of phytoestrogens to human sex hormones allows them to bind to estrogen receptors and modulate hormonal responses, impacting various physiological processes.

jaims_3273_06
Figure 4: structures of types of phytoestrogens

Receptor Mechanism^[9]

Phytoestrogens can bind to estrogen receptors (ER-α and ER-β) and mimic or antagonize the effects of estrogen. The similarities in structure allow them to interact with estrogen receptors, but they are generally weaker than endogenous estrogen.

It is due to the chemical structure of phytoestrogens that they can interact with estrogen receptors and have either estrogenic or antiestrogenic (i.e., amphoteric) effects on the body.

Absorption and Metabolism^[11]

Daidzin, contained in soy products, is hydrolyzed by the bacterial beta-glucosidase generating aglycones (primary metabolites). In addition, the colonic microflora is capable of transforming aglycones into secondary metabolites and bacterial end-products that are eliminated with feces. Both primary and secondary metabolites undergo either glucuronidation or sulfidation by intestinal epithelial cells and hepatocytes.

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Once in the bloodstream, these conjugated products reach target tissues and later on are excreted in urine or bile. In the latter case, they can be absorbed again by the intestine (enterohepatic circulation) or are excreted in feces as bacterial end-products or unconjugated forms.

jaims_3273_07

Figure 5: absorption, metabolism and excretion of phytoestrogens

Phytoestrogen Intake Levels[12,13] jaims_3273_04

Phytoestrogen Intake Levels^[12,13]

Average daily intake in East and Southeast Asia is estimated at 20-50 mg
Average intake in the United States is 0.15-3 mg per day
Average intake in Europe is much lower at 0.49-0.66 mg per day

Functions of Phytoestrogens^[3]

Mimic the effects of estrogen in the body
May help relieve menopausal symptoms
May help prevent osteoporosis
May have anti-cancer properties

May have anti-inflammatory properties
Prevention and treatment of menopausal symptoms
Controls aging of skin
Prevents and controls osteoporosis
Maintains cardiovascular health, regulates cholesterol levels
supports immune system malfunction, metabolic disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Disadvantages

May interact with certain medications
May not be suitable for all types of cancer
Regulation and safety are not well-established
Allergic reactions
Git disturbaces – nausea, vomiting, diarhhoea
Adversely affects fertility-increased phytoestrogen diet seem to reduce the occurrence of pregnancies and may decrease the sperm level in men
Cause hormonal issues- early consumption could lead to hormonal imbalances later in life
May stimulate breast carcinoma
Increase the risk of endometrial CA, vaginal bleeding, endometrial hyperplasia,
Suppress thyroid function
Increase the risk of cognitive decline.

Note: side effects are more common in women older than 55 years.

Natural Sources of Phytoestrogens ^{[13,14,15,16]}
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Food Source	Phytoestrogen Quantity (mg/100g)	Type of Phytoestrogen	Action
Vegetables
Soybeans	103-153	Isoflavones	improves fertility, reduces menopausal symptoms (hot flashes, osteoporosis), supports bone health, heart health, and breast health
Alfalfa sprouts	0.5-1.5	Coumestans
Mung bean sprouts	0.5-1.5	Isoflavones
Yams	0.5-1.5	Isoflavones
Legumes (Lentils, chickpeas)	0.5-1.5	Isoflavones
carrot	0.5-1.5	Lignans
Pinto beans	0.5-1.5	Lignans	Rich in nutrients and iron, reduce the risk of infertility
Garlic	0.5-1 mg/100g	Lignans	estrogenic effects, improves fertility, reduces menopausal symptoms (hot flashes, osteoporosis), supports bone health, reduces the risk of heart diseases.
Fruits
Pomegranate	0.5-1.5	Isoflavones
Grapes(red variety)	0.2-1.5	Stilbenes
Apple	0.5-1.5	Isoflavones
Peaches	0.5-1.5	Isoflavones	Contains many essential nutrients, it may reduce the risk of heart diseases
Berries (blueberry, cranberry, strawberry)	0.5-1.5	Isoflavones	Lowers the risk of obesity and heart diseases
Nuts & Seeds
Flaxseeds	85-140	Lignans	Reduces the risk of cardiac diseases, has beneficial effects on fertility, reduces the breast tumour growth
Flaxseed Flour (Defatted)	11.7-24.1	Lignans
Flaxseed Flour (Whole)	6.1-13.3	Lignans
Sesame seeds	0.5-1.5	Lignans	Improves sperm count and motility, release of an egg, maintains bone health, lipid lowering activity
Sunflower seeds	0.5-1.5	Lignans, coumestans
Almond	0.5-1.5	Isoflavones
Walnuts	0.5 – 1.5	Isoflavones	Rich in omega 3 fatty acids, protein and nutrients. Reduces menopausal symptoms- osteoporosis, improves mood, reduces hotflashes
Peanuts	0.1 -1.2	Lignans	Relief from menopausal symptoms, supports bone health, heart health, reduces the risk of breast and prostate cancer, neurodegenerative diseases.
Dry Fruits
Dried Fruits (e.g., Dates, Prunes, Dried Apricots)	0.5-1.5	Lignans	Good source of phytoestrogens and rich in fiber
Others
Red Clover	12-15	Isoflavones
Soy Protein Isolate (Powder)	91.05	Isoflavones	Manage hormonal imbalance and lowers the risk of breast cancer, heart disease and osteoporosis
Soy product (Natto)	82.29	Isoflavones
Soy products (tofu, tempeh, miso)	20-91	isoflavones
Coffee	0.5-1.5	Lignans
Olive oil	0.5-1.5	Lignans

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However, it's important to note that the research on phytoestrogens has been mixed, with some studies showing benefits and others finding no significant effects. The therapeutic effects may be influenced by individual factors like gut bacteria and ability to metabolize phytoestrogens

Note: The phytoestrogen quantities are approximate and may vary based on the specific food item, preparation method, and cooking process. This table provides a comprehensive overview of natural sources of estrogen and phytoestrogens, including their quantities and types.

Ayurvedic Medicines with Phytoestrogens^{[17,18,19,20,21]}

Drugs	Botanical name	Effects
Shatavari	Asparagus racemosus	Reduces the severity of menopausal syndrome, enhances fertility, balances hormones
Ashoka	Saraca asoca	Effective in hormone imbalance
Ashwagandha	Withania somnifera	Help balance hormone levels control stress, boost libido and sexual function
Jeeraka	Cuminum cyminium	Contains phytoestrogens, improves digestion, alleviates Vata indirectly supporting fertility
Bala	Sida cordifolia	Reduce menopausal symptoms, enhances strength
Amalaki	Phyllanthus emblica	Improve the hormonal imbalance, has antioxidants, also supports immune function
Methika	Trigonella foenum	Reduces the severity of Menopausal syndrome, boosts fertility, improves ovulation
Kumari	Aloe barbadensis miller	Improves hormonal imbalance, Reduces the severity of Menopausal syndrome
Yashti Madhu	Glycyrrhiza glabra	Reduces the severity of Menopausal syndrome
Vidari	Pueraria tuberosa	Reduces the severity of Menopausal syndrome
Kumkuma	Crocus sativus	Improve the imbalance
Jayanti	Sesbania sesban	Reduces the severity of menopausal symptoms
Vamsha	Bambusa arudinacea	Mimics the body hormones
Dashamulam		Contains Phytoestrogens
Triphala	Amla- Emblica officinalis Haritaki- Terminalia chebula Vibhithaki- Terminalia bellirica	Contains phytoestrogens
Shata Pushpa	Anethum graveolens	Contains phytoestrogens
Lodhra	Symplocus racemosa	Supports female reproductive health, regulates menses and enhances sexual well being
Gokshura	Tribulus terrestris	Improve libido and female sexual function, help manage PCOS, regulates mensural cycle, supports vaginal health and pH balance
Shilajit	Asphaltum punjabianum	Balances female hormones, regulates mental cycle alleviates PMS syndrome, enhances fertility, supports healthy pregnancy
Brahmi	Bacopa monnieri	Reduces stress and anxiety normalizes hormones, supports cognitive function and mental wellbeing, manage menopausal symptoms like mood swings and memory issues
Putranjivaka	Putranjiva roxburghii	Effective in female infertility and promotes conception
Shivalingi	Bryonia laciniosa	Works well in female reproductive health
Chandraprabha Vati		Effective in Artava Dosa Mootraghata, Yonivyapad
Loha Bhasma		Effective in amenorrhea, leucorrhea, irregular menstrual cycle
Ashoka Arishtam		Possess oestrogenic activity
Choraka	Achyanthes aspera	Has oestrogenic activity
Punarnava	Boerhavia diffusa	Support hormonal imbalance, relieves PMS symptoms, boost fertility & energy levels
Nagakeshara	Media ferrea	Supports hormonal imbalance, addresses menstrual irregularities, boost fertility
Twak	Cinnamomum verum	Regulates menstrual cycle and improve insulin sensitivity
Shweta Shrinkataka	Clerodendrum serratum
Kusumba	Carthamus tinctorius	Regulates menses, improves blood circulation and has anti-inflammatory properties
Nagavalli	Piper betle	Regulates menstrual cycles, possesses anti-microbial & anti-inflammatory properties
Atasi	Linum usitassimum	Regulates the hormone levels, reduces menopausal symptoms, improves fertility
Atma Gupta	Mucuna pruriens	Help increase libido, regulates hormones and improves fertility
Raktha Chandana	Pterocarpus santalinus	Alleviates irritation and inflammation associated with menstruation due to its cooling properties
Mudga	Vigna radiata	Rich in proteins, essential nutrients, supports reproductive health
Draksha	Virus venefera	Protects the body from oxidative damage

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Duration of consuming phytoestrogens^[11]

For postmenopausal women- duration ranging from 8 weeks to 24 months

40 mg twice daily for 12 weeks for post-menopausal women
In terms of bone health, older women who consume the soy milk for over a year had 2.3 percentage increase in Bone density indicating a longer-term consumption may be beneficial.

Conclusion

Phytoestrogens have been found to possess a plethora of health benefits for both males and females. These plant-derived compounds exhibit estrogenic activity, which can lead to a range of positive outcomes. For instance, they have been linked to a reduced risk of osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, and menopausal symptoms. Furthermore, phytoestrogens have been found to improve cognitive function and memory, particularly in older adults. They have also been associated with a reduced risk of certain cancers and may help alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety. Phytoestrogens offer a natural and safer alternative to synthetic estrogens because it is more biocompatible than latter. Synthetic estrogens, prepared in laboratory are potentially harmful with increased risks of cardiovascular disease, including heart attacks, strokes, blood clots and adverse allergic reactions.

Phytoestrogens are naturally present in a variety of foods, while the exact mechanisms by which phytoestrogens exert their effects are still being studied. It is clear that they play a significant role in maintaining overall health and well-being. In terms of application, consuming a balanced diet rich in phytoestrogen-containing foods can help support overall health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Overall, the benefits of phytoestrogens are multifaceted and far-reaching. By incorporating these plant-derived compounds into their diet, individuals can support their overall health and well-being, particularly as they age.

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J Ayu Int Med Sci 2024;09(06)173

Review Article

Phytoestrogens

Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences

Phytoestrogens: Unlocking the Power of Plant Based Estrogens

Shanmugaloga S1, Shilpa P N2

Introduction

Conclusion

References

Shanmugaloga S¹, Shilpa P N²