Philosophically Bhagavad Gita represents the Vedanta philosophy and considered as one of the three canon (Trayo Prasthan) of literature; known as Smriti Prasthan (i.e., moral and ethical guiding), other two being the Brahma Sutra (known as Nyaya Prasthan - logical arguments) and Upanishads (known as Shruti Prasthan - axiom of revelations).

The principles and understanding of any philosophical school should be studied from perspective of epistemology, metaphysics and axiology. Ontology is considered as sub-discipline of metaphysics focused on most general features of reality. Ontological study should be able to address the metaphysical questions like nature of existence, concept of time - space - causation, laws of nature etc. Bhagavad Gita represents Vedantic ontological views on Atman - soul or real self. Throughout eighteen chapters of Bhagavad Gita, mentioning about doctrine of Atman comes again and again, but in second chapter, this entire doctrine of Atman has been discussed elaborately by Sri Krishna. Likewise, in Charaka Samhita also discussion on Atman can be found in several places, but primarily eight chapters of Sharirasthan along with couple of chapters from Sutrasthana form the basis of studies on Atman in Charaka Samhita. To understand doctrine better, along with original texts, the commentaries on those texts should also be studied. In this study authors have gone through various commentaries of Bhagavad Gita, among which Adi Shankaracharya’s commentary being the principal one. Likewise Chakrapani Dutta’s commentary on Charaka Samhita has also been studied. Many similarities and dissimilarities in the doctrine of Atman can be found between the Bhagavad Gita and Charaka Samhita. For instance, in both the compendiums Atman has been referred as Anadi (beginningless), Avyaya (undecaying), Chetana (pure consciousness), Akshara (imperishable), Kshetraja (knower of the corpus), Shaswata (everlasting) etc. Likewise, where Atman has been accepted as the principal doer in Charaka Samhita, Bhagavad Gita denies its role as doer. The authors have presented the doctrine of Atman as discussed in these two compendiums in chronological way for better understanding. Thus, studying the doctrine of Atman as discussed in Charaka Samhita in comparison with Bhagavad Gita helps us to understand the ontological view of Charaka Samhita better along with its uniqueness as well as influence of Vedanta philosophy on it.

It has been accepted in Charaka Samhita that this Purusha as Chetana i.e., element of pure consciousness or Atma i.e., absolute soul is not the subject for treatment rather Rashi Purusha which is the conglomeration of 24 different objects is the subject for treatment in Ayurveda. We will discuss this doctrine of Atman or the absolute as well as empirical soul as propounded by Charaka Samhita under following headings:

Concept of Atman:

The Chetana Dhatu (element of pure consciousness) which constitutes Rashi Purusha and Shadadhatuja Purusha along with which has been alone referred as Ekadhatuja Purusha or Shuddha Purusha - should be accepted as Atman or Atma as propounded by Charaka Samhita. The same Atman has been regarded as Avyakta in constitution of Chaturvimshatika Purusha as Acharya Charaka mentioned: “the Atman (absolute soul) is Avyakta (un-manifested), Ksetraja (knower of creation), Shashwata (eternal), Vibhu (universal) and Avyaya (indestructible). The manifested creation (empirical soul) is of course otherwise. Another way of distinguishing manifested things from un-manifested one is that former can be perceived by sense faculties, while latter is transcendental in nature & is perceptible; it can only be inferred”.^[12]

Acharya Chakrapani has very eloquently pointed out the relation and distinction between Purusha and Atman as: “the term Purusha implies the ‘empirical soul’ as distinct from the twenty four elements. Purusha represents the ‘element of consciousness’ i.e., soul different from body. Accepting element of consciousness as Purusha is as par the legacy of the ancient preceptors as suggested by the term ‘Smrita’ in the verse. Even the element of consciousness is known as Purusha as corroborated from the traditional etymology viz. “Puri Sharire Shete Iti” (one who sleeps in the body). According to this definition, Purusha is something altogether detached from the body. This is how Purusha has also been defined in other scriptures. But as a matter of fact, it is the Purusha comprising six Dhatus who comes under the purview of the science of medicine and not the Purusha who is detached from the body”.^[13] According to Vedanta philosophy, this Atman is considered to be existed in two levels of realty: 1. one at the level of Paramarthika Satta (absolute existence) - at this level it is called Paramatma (absolute soul).

On minute analysis, the factors described to have been derived from the Atman are actually derived from the mind. Therefore, the deformities / rearrangements of these factors said to be derived from Atman should be considered to be the same as those of the mind”.^[18] Acharya Charaka himself accepts the fact that, Atman is not governed by the law of causality and it is has no bondage under the rule of Karma by saying: “the Atman is absolutely free to act as it pleases. It is however obliged to enjoy the fruits of his own action. It is also free to control its mind and to get rid of the results of good or bad acts of its own”.^[19] Accepting the view that Atman is beyond the law of causality and does not suffer from any positive or negative effect of the work done in previous life, it has been denied as the seat of any ailment or misery in multiple places of Charaka Samhita like Sutrasthana, chapter 1, verse 55; chapter 20, verse 3; Vimansthana, chapter 6, verse 3; Sharirasthana, chapter 1, verse 136; Chikitsasthana, chapter 3, verse 12 etc.

Characteristics of Atman:

In Sutrasthana 1^st chapter, Acharya Charaka has described the characteristics of Atman as: “Nirvikara (devoid of any changes), Sattvabhuta Gunendriyai Chaitanye Karanam (it is the cause of consciousness through the mind and specific qualities of basic elements), Nitya (eternal) and Drashta Pashyati Hi Kriya (it is the observer of all activities)”.^[20] Again, in Sharirasthana 1^st chapter, Acharya Charaka has mentioned some more characteristics of Atman referring other scholars as: “the knower of Atman describes it as Nishkriya (devoid of any activity), Swatantra (having independent existence), Vashina (absolutely free), Sarvaga (all pervasive), Vibhu (omnipresent), Kshetraja (knower of the body) and Sakhsi (eternal witness)”.^[21] Later in this same chapter, Acharya Charaka has described Atman as Aprabhava (beginning less), Anadi (has no beginning), Nitya (eternal), Bhavad Agrahyam (unperceivable by anything), Avyakta (un-manifested), Kshetraja (knower of the body), Shaswata (eternal), Avyaya (indestructible), Chetanavana (conscious), Karta (supreme agent of action), Sarvagato (all pervasive), Vibhu (omnipresent), Sakshi (eternal witness) and Dehi (embodied).^[22] Thereafter in Sharirasthana 3^rd chapter, Acharya Charaka has addressed the characteristics of Atman with multiple adjectives like: Na Cha Atmanaatmanam Janayati (Atman is not produced by another Atman),

Thus, we can say, Acharya Charaka has described the characteristics of both Nirguna Atman or Paramatman as well as Saguna Atman or Jivatman simultaneously.

Existence of Atman:

The existence of Atman is a matter of long debate and scepticism right from the inception of philosophy. In Katha Upanishada, Yama was asked by Nachiketa, “when a man dies there is this doubt: some say that he (as Atman) exists; some others say that he does not exist”.^[25] In one of the earliest verse from Rigveda, Nasadiya Sukta the same element of scepticism about the existence of Atman has been expressed as: “Ko Addha Veda Ka Iha Pravochat” - who really knows or who can really say?^[26] The non-existence of Atman has been propounded by the Charvaka community from the very beginning and later by Buddhist philosophers also.

Mentioning the opinions of nihilists like Charvaka community, Acharya Charaka has said: “for a nihilist everything happens accidentally, so for him there is no existence of Atman”.^[27] Acharya Charaka blatantly rejects such opinions of nihilists and atheists saying “Nihilism constitutes the worst of the sinful”^[28] and “they should be rejected”.^[29]

Acharya Charaka has also rejected the momentariness of Atman as propounded by Buddhists scholars by saying this: “in view of those who don’t recognise the existence of Atman the other similar products will enjoy the fruits of action done by their other predecessors. In fact, there may be difference in instrumental organs of the doer but the doer is the same all along. The doer equipped with instruments become the cause of all actions”.^[30] However Acharya Charaka has accepted the momentariness of other physical objects apart from Atman: “the time taken for destruction of an entity is shorter even than a twinkling of eye, the destroyed entities don’t emerge again and one’s action is not fructify in others - this is the view held by the knowers of reality. On this basis, the Purusha, the eternal one is regarded as the cause of living beings in their actions and enjoyments”.^[31] Thus, Acharya Charaka has accepted the existence and eternal nature of Atman as the only non- changing reality within ever-changing physical matters of body. This Atman has been regarded as the doer and receiver of all actions.

From all these adjectives the element of pure consciousness in supreme soul can be established. In the very first chapter of Charaka Samhita, Atman has been referred as ‘Chaitanye Karanam’ i.e., the cause of consciousness of this body-mind complex.^[36] Prior to regard Atman as the cause of consciousness, it itself should be accepted as a conscious element. Further while justifying the supreme soul as eternal witness (Jna) Acharya Charaka has explained the consciousness of Atman by saying: “it is only he knows things can stand as a witness. So, all attributes, actions etc. of Bhutas are witnessed by the supreme soul who alone is knower of things. Things cannot be witnessed by unconscious objects like stone”.^[37]

Changelessness of Atman:

In Charaka Samhita, Atman has been considered as Nirvikara - the substance which never undergoes any positive (in form of happiness) or negative change (in form of misery). Rashi Purusha or Samyoga Purusha has been considered as seat of sensations.^[38] Acharya Charaka has commented: “the absolute soul (Paramatman) does not undergo any modification. Its presence in different types of creatures does not bear any distinction. It appears to have distinctions only on account of the specific features of the body and mind of different types of creatures”.^[39] Acharya Chakrapani has commented on the aforesaid verse as: “this Atman is present in all creatures alike. Specific characteristics of the body and the mind are responsible for causing happiness and miseries in living beings and because of these specific features the Atman appears to have distinctions in different creatures. But this is not correct. Happiness etc. are not related to Paramatman (absolute soul); they are described here to be only the attributes of intellect”.^[40] Acharya Charaka has accepted the formlessness of absolute soul to be the principal cause of its changelessness attitude. Atman has been considered as formless because of its absolute minuteness.^[41] As it is formless, it is never subjected to perform any action - so it never undergoes any change as a result of its action. As we have discussed earlier, throughout the compendium of Charaka Samhita, Atman (absolute soul) has been considered as devoid of creation (Anadi, Nitya), annihilation (Anidhana, Amara), ageing (Ajara), decay (Akshaya), misery (Aruja) and all form of changes (Avyaya).

In reality, Atman as the absolute soul is neither a doer (Karta) nor a recipient of any action (Bhokta) because it is actually a non-changing eternal reality devoid of any action or transformation. Atman in association with Mana (mind) acts a doer of this entire process of creation as mentioned in Sharirasthana: “Mana (mind) is active but devoid of consciousness. Thus, the all-pervasive Atman (soul) while in combination with the mind appears to have actions. As soul has consciousness, it is said to be the agent of action. The mind being devoid of consciousness is said to be devoid of action even though it is possessed of actions”.^[47] He also mentions that, “the instrument of knowledge are Mana (mind), Buddhi (intellect) and Buddhi Karma Indriya (cognitive and conative organs). Their association with the doer (Atman) results in action, sensation and understanding. The empirical soul alone in absence of instruments of knowledge does neither initiate action nor enjoy the fruit of action. Combination of all these factors is responsible for the manifestation of everything without that nothing exists”.^[48]

All pervasive nature of Atman:

Acharya Charaka has accepted the all-pervasive nature of Atman by referring the absolute soul as Vibhu, Sarvaga and Sarvagata (Ch.Sh.1/5,61,75,79,80; Ch.Sh.2/32). Even though Soul is all pervasive, He has sensation in respect of his own body depending upon the contacts of the sense organs with their respective objects. Being limited by contacts of the bodily sense organs with their objects, the soul cannot have all sensation. As because soul is all pervasive, the omnipresence of it is also established.^[49] Atman has been referred as Vishwarupa in many places of Charaka Samhita (Ch.Sh.2/32, 3/14, 4/8). By referring Atman as Vishwarupa, Acharya Charaka has accepted Atman as the prototype of the universe. This view reflects the Vedantic view as described in various Upanishads.

Atman as Kshetrajna i.e., knower of the corpus:

In Charaka Samhita, the topic of Kshetra and Kshetrajna has been discussed in relation with Atman. The Pancha Tanmatra, Buddhi, Avyakta and Ahamkara are the eight source of creation (Bhuta Prakriti). Transformation (Vikara) are sixteen in number viz. Karmendriya, Jnanendriya, Mana and Pancha Mahabhuta.

Introduction of doctrine of Atman in Bhagavad Gita:

In the colophon section of each chapter of Bhagavad Gita, this text has been mentioned as ‘Brahma Vidya’ and ‘Yoga Sastra’ indicating the central character of this compendium as the foremost text of fundamental studies on absolute soul as well as the practical manual dealing with the various paths of attaining the oneness with absolute soul by empirical soul. As per the descriptions, when Arjuna seeing his near and dear ones including his cousin brothers and preceptors among those against whom he had to fight, he became filled with pity with his eyes became filled with tears and showed distress and he started sorrowing, Sri Krishna begun counselling Arjuna about his real nature along with actual duty.^[55] During the counselling Sri Krishna tried his best through various arguments with Arjuna to face the battle. As a Kshatriya (warrior class) Arjuna should face the battle as everybody within Pandavas depends upon him for winning of the battle. So, Sri Krishna wants Arjuna to recognize his duty at this crucial time of war through various arguments, some of them highly metaphysical and some of them very worldly. The metaphysical arguments placed by Sri Krishna before Arjuna about the real nature of self are based upon the philosophy of ascetic thought, known as ‘Jnan Marga’ which denies the world, which believes in a transcendental experience, where the Atman is ever free without any attachments. That is every one’s true nature. Birthless, deathless is the self of all. So, the metaphysics of Sri Krishna’s argument with Arjuna is based on the concept of Atman. Based on this metaphysical argument about everyone’s real nature i.e. Atman, Sri Krishna induced Arjuna to face up the battle.^[56] This is how the concept of Atman and its various attributes have been introduced and thoroughly discussed in Bhagavad Gita.

Atman as the only real nature of self:

At the beginning of the counselling with Arjuna, Sri Krishna describes human’s real nature as Atman which is immortal, not subjected to birth and death. The physical body undergoes changes but the Atman remains as changeless entity and that is our real nature. In the eleventh verse of second chapter, Sri Krishna scolded Arjuna by saying ‘you grieved for those who are not to be grieved for; and you speak words of wisdom.

The transliteration of this verse has been made by Shankaracharya as: “as to that to show how the Atman is changeless, the Lord (Sri Krishna) sites an illustration by saying, ‘….these three stages (boyhood, middle age and senility) are mutually distinct. Of these, when the first stage gets destroyed, the Atman does not get destroyed; when the second stage comes in to being Atman doesn’t born. What then? It is seen that the Atman which verily remains unchanged acquires the second and third states. Similar indeed is Atman’s acquisition of another body - a body different from the present one”.^[64]

Atman as the only independent reality:

In the sixteenth verse of second chapter Sri Krishna describes Atman as the only reality, devoid of dependence and the whole world as appearance in this very Atman; hence treated as false. This verse forms the foundation of non-dual Vedanta philosophy. The verse goes like this: “Of the unreal there is no being; the real has no non-existence. But the nature of the both these, indeed, has been realised by the seers of truth”.^[65] To explain this highly metaphysical verse, the authors would like to quote the opinion of one of the most profound Vedantic scholar of modern times, Swami Ranganathananda on this: “in this verse the words Sat and Asat are used. In Sankhya terminology one is called the cause and the other is called the effect. The Sat is the effect, the Asat is the cause, because Sat you can see. And these cause and effect are non-different according to Sankhya philosophy. But in this present context, from Vedantic point of view, the word Sat means the real and Asat means the unreal. The Sat is the real - it can never be the non-existent. Our thinkers, when they studied the world, found two aspect to the world: one is changeable aspect, another an unchangeable aspect. Everything in this world is changeable, every second it is changing. And anything that changes, moment to moment, Vedanta calls it unreal. That is how we use the word unreal; it exists, but it is unreal. It appears, but it is unreal. Vedanta says there is the changeless reality beyond the sensory level, which is unchanging, infinite, and eternal. So, we use the word Sat for that infinite, imperishable reality - which is Atman and Asat for this perishable universe”.^[66] Another great scholar of modern time Swami Ramsukhdas Ji mentioned: “only the Atman as pure consciousness should be treated as Sat (unchanging reality) and except this Atman,

because this Atman has nothing that is its own”.^[71] Explaining the immutable reality of Atman, prominent spiritual personality Swami Vasudevananda beautifully wrote: “Basically destruction is of two types: 1. when a compound object becomes dismantled in to its structural units; and 2. when a basic element under goes change in its physical property. But Atman or Brahman being Niravayava (formless) and Nirguna (attribute less) can never undergoes any change in these parameters; hence can never be destructed”.^[72]

Atman as everlasting, indestructible, indeterminable reality:

Further Sri Krishna has described Atman as everlasting, indestructible, indeterminable reality to whom this mortal physical body belongs. He said in the 18^th verse of second chapter that: “These destructible bodies are said to belong to the everlasting, indestructible, indeterminable, embodied one”.^[73] In this verse several adjectives have been used to denote Atman like Nitya (everlasting), Anashina (indestructible), Aprameya (indeterminable) and Sharirina (embodied one). Shankaracharya explains these adjectives as: “the two words Nitya and Anashina are not repetitive, because in common usage everlastingness and destructibility are of two kinds. As for instance, a body which is reduced to ashes and has disappeared is said to have been destroyed. And even while existing when it becomes transfigured by being afflicted with diseases etc. it is said to be destroyed. That being so, by the two words ‘everlasting’ and ‘indestructible’ it is meant that Atman is not subjected to both kind of destruction. The term Aprameyasya (indeterminable) means ‘of that which cannot be determined by such means of knowledge as direct perception etc.^’[74] Swami Ranganathananda clarifies this as: “which cannot be measured, which cannot be brought within the purview of speech and thought. That is called Aprameya. Everything in the world can be brought within the limit of thought and speech, not the Atman, because it is eternally the subject, is eternally of the nature of pure consciousness”.^[75]

Atman as non-doer of actions and non-receiver of results of action:

After declaring Atman as the changeless, indestructible entity which is not an object of knowing, Sri Krishna further clarifies the unique aspect of this absolute soul as:

As devoid of parts, Atman was afresh in the past; as it is now or will be in future. Atman is not killed when the body is killed; it is not transformed when the body gets transformed”.^[79] To establish the eternity of Atman in this verse, Sri Krishna has basically denied ‘Shada Bhava Vikara’ (six material changes of condition to which all the beings in the world are subjected) in Atman. These are : Jayate (birth), Mriyate (death), Asti (existence), Vardhate (growth), Viparinamati (transformation), Apakshiyate (decline) and Vinashyati (destruction).^[80]

Atman as Kshetrajna - the knower of the filed:

In the thirteenth chapter, Sri Krishna revealed to Arjuna that: “O son of Kunti, this body is referred as the ‘field’. Those who are versed in this call him who is conscious of it as the ‘knower of the field’.^[81] Then he added, “understand me to be the ‘knower of the field’ in all the fields. In my opinion, that is knowledge which is the knowledge of the field and the knower of the filed”.^[82] Swami Ramsukhdas Ji explained this verse as: “this verse indicates the oneness of self with eternal, omnipresent Paramataman. Thus, it means self is one with Paramatman which is considered to be the knower of the field”.^[83]

Atman - the wondrous truth:

All the discussion regarding Atman in Bhagavad Gita indicates towards the amazing facets of it - establishing Atman as a standalone truth which is beyond the limit of time, space and causation. The whole idea of Atman creates an immutable sense of wonder in every one’s mind. This sense of wonder regarding Atman has been beautifully expressed by Sri Krishna in the 29^th verse of second chapter as: “One sees it (Atman) as wonder; and so also another speaks of it as a wonder; and as a wonder another hears of it; and someone else indeed does not realize it even after hearing about it”.^[84] This verse bears the impression of another verse quoted by Yama as mentioned in Katha Upanishad,^[85] which indicates that wherever this topic has been discussed it creates a huge sense of wonder. Shankaracharya wrote in his commentary: “one sees the Atman as a wonder, as a thing unseen, as something strange, as seen all on a sudden. And so, another speaks of it as a wonder; and another hears of it as a wonder. Though seeing it, hearing and speaking of it, none realise it at all”.^[86]

But where Buddhism denies the very existence of Atman, Samkhya accepts Prakriti and Purusha as separate identity. None of these concepts were accepted by Charaka Samhita. From the above discussion it is evident that, the doctrine of Atman as discussed in Charaka Samhita is by far large inspired by the principles of Vedanta philosophy. Bhagavad Gita being one of the central text of Vedanta philosophy, has discussed this doctrine of Atman with great importance - which forms the ontological basis of Vedanta philosophy. Charaka Samhita also followed the same ontological view in relation with the concept of Atman. Thus, such comparative study will help us to understand the influence of Vedanta philosophy on Charaka Samhita as well as to establish a separate ontological view of Ayurveda, comprising concepts of multiple philosophical school as adopted in Ayurveda, which will be able to address various metaphysical questions like nature of existence, concept of time - space - causation, laws of nature etc. from Ayurveda’s own point of view.

Acknowledgement

The authors are immensely grateful to the various scholars of Ayurveda, especially Acharya Satyanarayan Srivastava as well as revered monks of Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Advaita Ashrama of Kolkata & Vedanta Society, New York (branch centre of Ramakrishna Math & Mission); especially to revered Swami Atmapriyananda Ji, Swami Sarvapriyananda Ji and Swami Suddhidananda Ji for their online and offline classes on Bhagavad Gita. We bow down our heads to their lotus feet.

References