E-ISSN:2456-3110

Review Article

Gut Microbiota

Journal of Ayurveda and Integrated Medical Sciences

2025 Volume 10 Number 9 September
Publisherwww.maharshicharaka.in

Effect of Viruddha Ahara on the Gut Microbiota - A Review

Parthasarathy H1*, Rashma S2
DOI:10.21760/jaims.10.9

1* Hiranmayi Parthasarathy, Second Year BAMS, Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara Institute of Ayurveda and Hospital, Bangaluru, Karnataka, India.

2 Rashma S, Assistant Professor, Dept of Swasthavrutta and Yoga, Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara Institute of Ayurveda and Hospital, Bangaluru, Karnataka, India.

The Gut microbiota, which constitutes the various bacterial flora in our body, plays a vital role in maintaining Homeostasis, Immune balance, Emotional and mental stability and overall health. Disruption of this complex ecosystem is known as “Dysbiosis” which has been implicated in a range of disorders like inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, cardiovascular diseases etc. Among the various factors influencing this, the role of Viruddha Ahara remains to be established. In Ayurvedic literature, Viruddha Ahara refers to incompatible combinations of foods that disturb the physiological equilibrium. This study aims to establish that Viruddha Ahara contributes to dysbiosis through a review of published studies on Gut Microbiota and the effects of dietary behaviour on them. The findings suggest that Viruddha Ahara may act as a factor in gut balance, supporting the integration of Ayurvedic principles in modern gut-based health.

Keywords: Gut microbiome, Viruddha Ahara, Bacterial taxa, Dysbiosis

Corresponding Author How to Cite this Article To Browse
Hiranmayi Parthasarathy, Second Year BAMS, , Sri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara Institute of Ayurveda and Hospital, Bangaluru, Karnataka, India.
Email: 		Parthasarathy H, Rashma S, Effect of Viruddha Ahara on the Gut Microbiota - A Review. J Ayu Int Med Sci. 2025;10(9):122-132.
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https://jaims.in/jaims/article/view/4735/

Manuscript Received Review Round 1 Review Round 2 Review Round 3 Accepted
2025-07-14 2025-07-26 2025-08-08 2025-08-18 2025-08-27
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None Nil Not required 11.35

© 2025 by Parthasarathy H, Rashma S and Published by Maharshi Charaka Ayurveda Organization. This is an Open Access article licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ unported [CC BY 4.0].

J Ayu Int Med Sci 2025;10(9)122
Download PDFBack To ArticleIntroductionObjectivesMethodology of ReviewDiscussionConclusionReferences
Hiranmayi P et al. Effect of Viruddha Ahara on the Gut Microbiota

Introduction

The gut microbiome comprises a trillion genes encoded by colonising bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes attuned to create an adaptive and complex ecosystem. A well-functioning gut ecosystem is essential for proper digestion, immune health, mood regulation and maintenance of energy. Deviation from this balance is known as “Dysbiosis” and is currently being proven as the “cause of all diseases”. A survey by Country Delight and the Indian Dietetic Association in Mumbai found that 7 in 10 urban Indians experience gut health issues, with almost 60% experiencing digestive problems weekly and 12% daily.[1]

Maintaining Gut wellbeing has become crucial in India with researchers linking gut health with chronic lifestyle diseases like Diabetes , obesity and cardiovascular diseases .In 2025 the Health of Nation report analysing health data from 2.8 million individuals across India revealed that a significant portion of the Indian population is grappling with lifestyle-related diseases, with one in two individuals exhibiting signs of such disorders. This includes conditions like diabetes, thyroid disorders, lipid imbalances, and kidney issues, as well as more prevalent issues like obesity, hypertension, and fatty liver disease. According to the report 53% of all deaths in India are attributed to non-communicable disease (NCD’s), and 44% of disability-adjusted life-years are lost due to these conditions.[2]

Studies have linked Dysbiosis to altered metabolism, increased inflammation, and impaired insulin sensitivity, influence on blood lipid levels [3] and hence The rising prevalence of lifestyle diseases necessitates a shift towards preventive healthcare beginning with change in diet and lifestyle.

The Indian diet is increasingly shifting from traditional, home-cooked meals towards processed foods, primarily due to factors like urbanization, globalisation, increasing income, and fast paced lifestyle.

In Ayurveda these changes in diet pattern and incompatible foods can be correlated to Viruddha Ahara, which causes Dosha Prakopa but does not eliminate it out of the body leading to hampering of physiological balance of the body. It is said to be the cause of many systemic and metabolic disorders by food - food and food - body interaction.

According to Sabnis M. (Viruddha Ahara: A critical view) - Viruddha Ahara taken regularly could induce inflammation at a molecular level, this inflammatory effect is an important effect as these are all the basic pathologies that create Agni Mandya, Ama, and a number of metabolic disorders[4] thus correlated to the pathology of dysbiosis.

Acharya Charaka has mentioned 18 types of Viruddha Ahara[5] leading to various diseases summarized as -

1. Desha Viruddha
2. Kala Viruddha
3. Agni Viruddha
4. Matra Viruddha
5. Satmya Viruddha
6. Dosha Viruddha
7. Samskara Viruddha
8. Veerya Viruddha
9. Koshtha Viruddha
10. Avastha Viruddha
11. Krama Viruddha
12. Parihara Viruddha
13. Upachara Viruddha
14. Paaka Viruddha
15. Samyoga Viruddha
16. Hrid Viruddha
17. Sampad Viruddha
18. Vidhi Viruddha

Thus, it is of immediate concern that people understand the effect of Viruddha Ahara on the Gut microbiota and the contribution of various Viruddha on dysbiosis.

Objectives

1. To identify the various causes of dysbiosis and correlate it to Viruddha Ahara

2. Create awareness of hazardous effect of Viruddha Ahara

Methodology of Review

  • Literature has been reviewed from both Ayurveda Samhithas and modern medicine literature
  • Used electronic searching engine like PubMed and Google Scholar with key words “gut microbiota, diet and lifestyle, dysbiosis”
  • Comparison with results and conclusion was done and summed up the derived findings

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Influence of various Viruddha Ahara on Gut microbiome

1. Desha Viruddha

Acharya Charaka has described 3 Deshas (habitats) - Jangala (arid), Anupa (marshy), sadharana (temperate). When Similar quality of food is taken to that of respective region it may produce disease.

Studies have established that there is variation in gut microbiota based on region - Asian populations including Japan, China, India consume more starch predominant diet and hence contain more Bifidobacterium which has high abundance of glycoside hydrolases to degrade starch than the other microbes residing in the gut. whereas high abundance of the members of the genus of Ruminococcaceae is seen in the Colombian human gut microbiome.[6,7]

Thus showing the evolution and diversity of the bacterial species based on the food consumed in different habitats and any abrupt change in diet may overload or incapacitate the curated ecosystem

2. Kala Viruddha

Intake of Sheeta(cold) and Ruksha(dry) foods in Sheeta Kaala (cold climate) & Ushna(hot) and Teekshna (potent) foods in Ushna Kaala (hot climate) is considered as Kaala Viruddha (seasonal incompatibility)- consuming an unseasonal diet.[8]

In the Koliada et al. study, there was increased abundance of Actinobacter species and reduction of bacteroidetes in the summer fecal samples of the Ukrainian population attributed to the season dependent diet and nutrient availability.[9] However in the Davenport et al. study, the diet being high fiber and carbohydrate led to increased abundance of bacteroidetes.[10]

Thus seasonal modulation of Gut microbiota is affected by consuming seasonal diet and non-dietary factors like sunlight exposure, temperature etc. making it easier to digest certain foods and this fluctuation could synchronice the host metabolism and compensate for the seasonal lack of essential nutraceutical phospholipids playing an important role in physiological health.[11] However, in recent days due to efficient storage and preservation methods the concept of seasonal foods is not followed hence the gut composition may not change and support the body according to varying seasons.

3. Agni Viruddha

Consuming Laghu(light) and Alpa(less) food in Tikshna Agni and Guru(heavy) and more quantity of foods in Manda Agni - consuming foods without consideration of digestive power.

A direct correlation can be made between Agni (digestive power) and gut microbiome as -

  • Seat of Agni is situated in the Grahani (gut)
  • Sarve Roga Api Mandagnau - in Ayurveda the root cause of all diseases in Manda Agni Leading to Aama similar to how “all diseases begin in the gut”
  • Dhatvagni and Bhutagni can be understood through various gut -organ axis

Thus Mandagni - dysbiosis leading to decline of abundance and loss of essential bacteria like Bacteroides and Firmicutes and Tikshnagi - dysbiosis leading to increase in pathogenic bacteria like prevotellaceae leading to an imbalance of pH and increased digestive power.[12,13]

Consuming foods without consideration of composition of gut microbiome can potentially affect the survival and growth of different microbes leading to more severe diseases.

4. Maatra Viruddha

Maatra Viruddha is when an improper quantity of the total meal (Sarvagraha) and individual components of a meal (Parigraha) are taken. It can be Hina (less) or Adhika (more).[14] Acharya Charaka has used the example of consuming equal quantity of Madhu(honey) and Ghrita (Ghee) together as it becomes toxic. Researchers have found that this is due to oxidative stress mediated toxicity caused by increased Amadori products, Dipeptidyl protease (DPP - 4) activity and decreased gastric inhibitory peptide leading to high postprandial hyperglycemic response.[15] Evidence suggests that increase in Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) can damage the intestinal tract barrier leading to decrease in intestinal microbial diversity and Advanced glycation end products (AGE) like Amadori products negatively interact with gut microbiota.[16,17]

Maatra in today's era can be considered as the proportion of macronutrients in the diet - a study by Zhang P et al. suggests that lack of fibre rich foods can deplete the microbial diversity,


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a high fat diet can promote microbial changes leading to obesity, a high protein diet can disrupt the gut mucosa homeostasis.[18] Thus, the quantity of consumption of each macronutrient and the total calories should be decided according to individual requirement and capability.

5. Satmya Viruddha

Satmya is the habitual intake and diet pattern of an individual according to their unique prakriti and lifestyle. Any food which deviates from this or which the person is not habituated becomes Satmya Viruddha.[19] The gut microbial community displays the capacity of rapidly adapting to short term dietary changes causing variation in microbial composition, however these changes and disruptions are only temporary and are shown to revert back to the baseline ecosystem within days. The short-term effect of these imbalances needs to be further studied. Thus, for any positive changes in gut microbiome, sustainable dietary habits need to be maintained and the use of Paadamshika Krama is beneficial while advising any dietary changes.

6. Dosha Viruddha

Food items having similar properties to that of Doshas, which causes Dosha Dushti are called as Dosha Viruddha.

Here we can consider the Intrinsic constitution of an individual (Prakriti) based on the varying proportion of Dosha; Vata, Pitta, Kapha Prakriti Jnana et al. and Chauhan et al. have attempted to relate these 3 Prakriti phenotypes to gut microbiome constitution [Table 1].

The findings suggest that Pitta prakriti individuals have higher enrichment of microbiota and increased metabolic pathways and due to their higher tendency of inflammation , anti-inflammatory bacteria were found - to maintain homeostasis .In Vata prakriti individuals , a combination of beneficial as well as detrimental microbes were found hence a slight imbalance makes them more prone to diseases for example presence of high nitrogen metabolism pathways makes them more susceptible to neurological disorders. Microbiome of Kapha prakriti individuals were enriched in stress response and repair (increased Vyadhi Kshamatva) while at the same time phenotypes coding for insulin resistance were also found, increasing the probability of Type 2 Diabetes mellitus (Prameha).[21,22]

Thus, any disruption in these specific Dosha based enterotypes by consuming foods that cause Dosha Prakopa can lead to loss of beneficial function and increase vulnerability to Prakriti specific disease).


Table 1: List of Prakriti specific signature taxa with details of their functional importance in the human gut. (Chauhan et al.[22])

-
Signature TaxaGenderPrakritiOTUIDp-valueLDAPhysiological relevance in human gutReferences
Prevotella copriFemaleKapha2156700.0065.620623Proinflammatory, onset of rheumatoid arthritis, insulin resistanceWu et al., 2011; Scher et al., 2013
Blautia lutiFemalePitta1787620.0055.19693Butyrate producers, protect from graft versus host disease, restricts colonization of Vibrio choleraHsiao et al., 2014; Eren et al., 2015; Jenq et al., 2015
Blautia obeumFemalePitta1867480.0184.759854Butyrate producers, protect from graft versus host disease, restricts colonization of Vibrio choleraHsiao et al., 2014; Eren et al., 2015; Jenq et al., 2015
Blautia torquesFemalePitta32727640.0034.885697Butyrate producers, protect from graft versus host disease, restricts colonization of Vibrio choleraHsiao et al., 2014; Eren et al., 2015; Jenq et al., 2015
Butyricicoccus pullicaecorumFemalePitta1798260.0015.158494Butyrate producers, protects from IBS, potential probioticEeckhaut et al., 2013; Geirnaert et al., 2014
Gemmiger formicilisFemalePitta3410240.0284.878518Induced during CTM treatment of T2DXu et al., 2015
Incertae Sedis MahellaFemalePitta1917830.0264.828228--
Lachnospira eligensFemalePitta1762690.0054.822001--
Bacteroides vulgatusFemaleVata1847530.0164.753459Induces insulin resistance, but found to protect from obseity in miceRidaura et al., 2013; Pedersen et al., 2016
Blautia stercorisFemaleVata1858240.0184.654206-
Butyrivibrio crossotusFemaleVata43492610.0015.137397Depleted in patients with Chronic Kidney DiseaseBarros et al., 2015
Clostridium indolisFemaleVata3389920.0155.224559Carbohydrate metabolismBiddle et al., 2014

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Eubacterium rectaleFemaleVata3667940.0015.658181Butyrate producer, depleted during ulcerative colitisVermeiren et al., 2012; Machiels et al., 2014; Cockburn et al., 2015; Riviere et al., 2015
Oscillibacter valericigenesFemaleVata1758280.0494.617719Oscillibacter related with bacterimiaSydenham et al., 2014
Roseburia hominisFemaleVata1989450.0114.671769Butyrate producer, depleted during ulcerative colitisVermeiren et al., 2012; Machiels et al., 2014; Cockburn et al., 2015; Riviere et al., 2015
Roseburia inulinivoransMalePitta1990910.0044.526317Butyrate producerScott et al., 2006, 2011
Fusicatenibacter saccharivoransMaleVata1834010.0454.705687--

7. Samskara Viruddha

Samskara Viruddha refers to improper processing and preparation of food. Different cooking methods affect food digestibility and nutrient bio accessibility thus impacting microbial composition. In the modern context, ultra processed foods - additives, emulsifiers, flavouring agents - can be considered, which negatively impact the gut ecosystem by reducing diversity and promoting unfavourable growth.[23]

An example of Samskara Viruddha in classics is sto-rage of ghee in bronze vessel. Experimental studies shows that this leads to increase in free fatty acids, peroxide values which are early signs of oxidation & degradation in unsaturated oils [Table 2].

Consuming oxidised oils causes alterations in microbial composition and induces inflammation.[25,26] Nowadays most of the cheap unsaturated oils used in packaged foods are already oxidised or degraded due to various processes hence packaged foods inherently become Viruddha.

8. Veerya Viruddha

Consuming foods with opposing potencies in the same meal; Sheeta (cold potency) and Ushna (hot potency) foods together. Example

Table 2: Analytical study of Ghee samples in the study of Abdul Sukkur M et al: J. Pharma. Sci. innov. 2015 [24]

ParametersCow's ghee APICow's gheeCow's ghee in bronze vessel
Rancidity-Not oxidisedNot oxidised
Acid value-1.672.63
Saponification valueNot more than 225206.5209.9
Iodine value (%)Not more than 3521.9627.12
Peroxide value-1.601.99

Told by Acharya Charaka is consuming milk (cold) with fish (hot) which is said to cause Shonitadushti and generate Amavisha. However, the effect of opposing Potencies on the Gut microbiota is yet to be studied as we cannot consider general temperature to be potency and there is no way of measuring potency of an object other than its effect on the body. Hence, we cannot perceive how the Gut microbiota reacts to potency yet.

9. Koshta Viruddha

Food taken opposing the individuals Koshta (Digestive tract) is Koshta Viruddha. According to Ayurveda there are 3 types of Koshta - Krura (poor absorption and secretion), Madhyama (good absorption and secretions), Mrudu (increased secretion and absorption).[27]

The study by vandeputte et al. relates increased methanogens, methane producing bacteria, like Methanobrevibacter increased in harder stools proving the involvement of Vata dosha in Krura Koshta. Apart from this, the gut microbiota is involved in digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, in lipid metabolism and degradation of polyphenols thus changes in the microbial composition can impair the body's ability to digest food, metabolise enzymes and ferment carbohydrates. The 2 main bacterial metabolites produced - Short chain fatty acids (SCFA) and tryptophan are known to alter bowel motility.[29,30] Thus all these factors are involved in determining the functioning of GIT; Koshta. Consumption of Koshta Viruddha Ahara can further cause extreme diarrhoea or constipation depending on the microbial composition and in the long term may lead to Dysbiosis.

10. Awastha Viruddha

Incompatibility due to state of Dosha in an indivi-dual’s body; Vata Prakopa Ahara after heavy Vyaya-ma (exercise), an activity that causes Vata Prakopa.


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Research done on the effect of diet patterns of various athletes on the gut microbiota suggest that a high protein and low carb may promote gut microbial diversity depending on the type & quantity of protein consumed and also on the type of activity done by the athlete; endurance or resistance training but the data is still inconclusive.[31,32,33]

Awastha Viruddha can also be considered as consumption of food without analysing Vyadhi Avastha (state of disease). Individuals with Chronic diseases have been reported to exhibit changes in the gut diversity thus affecting their digestion and immunity. The study by Durack et al. evaluates the microbial composition in autoimmune diseases, asthma, bowel disorders hence validating the need for a conscious diet in those suffering from chronic disorders.[35]

11. Krama Viruddha

Food consumed by the wrong sequence or while performing wrong actions. Ex. having food while doing Vega Dharana (suppression of natural urges) or when not hungry etc. Improper dietary habits are characterised as eating disorders, which have been negatively correlated with gut microbial diversity.[35] In the study by Glenny et.al. consumption of food with Anorexia nervosa (Aruchi) leads to decreased microbial diversity and metabolites produced by these microbes further contribute to the eating disorder.[36]

12. Parihara Viruddha

It is incompatibility with respect to what is contraindicated in the Ayurvedic classics. For example, consuming hot water after Varaha Mamsa (pork meat) & consumption of heated honey. Heated honey generates an increased amount of 5 - Hydroxymethylfurfural, a known carcinogenic, mutagenic and organotoxic, this can indirectly cause change in microbial composition when consumed in large quantities.[37] Similarly each and every advice in ayurveda related to diet must be impacting the gut microbiome thus it should be followed by every individual.

13. Upachara Viruddha

Upachara Viruddha is incompatibility due to consumption of food which is opposite to what is indicated in Ayurvedic text. For example, consumption of cold water after Sneha Pana (ghee intake).

Some Studies suggests that cold water can slightly decrease the efficiency of digestion[38] and hence if taken after a heavy intake of Ghee , being a dietary fat, can slow down its digestion causing more fat content to be pushed into the gut before complete digestion, A high fat diet can lead to increase of gut mucosal barrier disrupting species[39] further damaging overall health and it won’t produce the positive intended effects of Snehapana.

14. Paaka Viruddha

It refers to improperly cooked foods - undercooked, overcooked and burnt - leading to potential digestive imbalances.

Cooking methods that require high temperatures like frying, roasting and burning of food can lead to the production of a toxic substance called Acrylamide, which has already been established as a carcinogen and neurotoxin.[40] The study by Wang et al. suggests that Acrylamide also alters the gut microbial composition and increases its susceptibility to T.Salmonella species thus causing dysbiosis.[41,42] Undercooked foods especially meats and leafy vegetables can harbor many harmful parasites and infective agents which can negatively impact the gut microbiome.

15. Samyoga Viruddha

It is the incompatibility of certain foods when combined and consumed together, even though individually and separately they may be beneficial. In classics the combination of Khadali Phala (banana) and Ksheera (milk) is considered as Viruddha.[43]

The study by Shweta et al. on wistar rats shows that continued consumption of this combination can lead to elevated SGOT, urea and creatinine levels which depicts the damage of liver and kidney tissue.[44] Due to Gut-organ axis, any negative feedback immediately alters intestinal flora and permeability, suggesting dysbiosis[45,46] caused by improper combination, however further research needs to done to prove the effects of various Samyoga Viruddha on gut microbiome

16. Hrid Viruddha

It encompasses all foods which are not liked by the individual or which are taken in an improper state of mind, stating the importance of Mental wellbeing on digestion and health.


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The Gut -Brain axis is a bidirectional complex communication between the brain and the gut by means of neural,endocrine,humoral pathways.[47] [Fig 1] Therefore different psychological stresses affect the intestine irrespective of their duration, both directly and indirectly by altering gut motility, mucus secretions and mucus immune response.[48]

jaims_4735_01.JPG
Figure 1: Microbiome gut brain axis structure (AnnGastroenterol.2015Apr-Jun;28(2):203–209.)[47]

17. Sampad Viruddha

It is incompatibility of quality; consuming overripened/ rotten or unripened - any foods that lack their intended potential.

In Classics, Unripe Bilva Phala (bael fruit) is indicated whereas ripened Bilva is not considered. Studies suggest that Over 35 strains of bacteria that cause diarrhoea, Vibrio cholera, Escherichia coli, and Shigella sp are effectively inhibited by ethanolic extract of fruit and the unripe fruit has potential against enterotoxins.[49] Compared to ripened fruit, the unripened Bael also shows increased anti-inflammatory effect thus proving beneficial in GIT diseases like diarrhoea.[50,51] Every naturally occurring food substance undergoes changes in quality at different stages of maturity[52] and hence all these changes need to be considered when choosing it for obtaining its optimum effects.

18. Vidhi Viruddha

It means consuming food without following certain dietary rules mentioned as Ahara Vidhi Vidhana (dietary regimens).

Example, Jirne Bhunjitam - consuming food only after digestion of previous meal.Today , due to a fast-paced lifestyle it is common to eat food before proper digestion of previous meal due to time constraints leading to increased prevalence of diseases like GERD (Gastroesophageal reflux disease). Research has linked changes such as increased pathogenic bacteria in the gut of patients with GERD further leading to dysbiosis.[53,54]

All the rules including the other types of Viruddha can be considered as Vidhi Viruddha, which varies from individual to individual based on one's needs and lifestyle.

Discussion

By analysing all these types of Viruddha it can be understood that they all lead to dysbiosis of gut bacteria and this can explain the pathogenesis of various Viruddha Ahara Janya Roga (diseases caused by Viruddha Ahara) -

Impotency, Visarpa (erysipelas), blindness, ascitis, bullus, insanity, fistula in ano, coma or fainting, intoxication, abdominal distention, stiffness in neck, varieties of anemia, indigestions, various skin diseases, diseases of intestines, swelling, gastritis, fever, rhinitis, and infertility. - which signifies the impact of food on all the systems of the body maybe through the various gut organ axis.[4] Understanding the relation between Viruddha and dysbiosis we can speculate that the mode of action is due to inflammation, increased oxidative stress, production of certain substances by a combination or by inhibition of beneficial bacteria, however still more enterotype specific research needs to be done using classical examples and standard parameters to quantify the impact of Viruddha Ahara on the gut microbiota.

Conclusion

In Today’s context due to globalisation, western trends and increased trade, it is common for people to move away from traditional lifestyle and habits and adopt a more rushed way of living to keep up with the demand of an overwhelming world.


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This is especially common in India as seen by incre-ased prevalence of lifestyle diseases in our popula-tion. Thus, more holistic understanding of diet to identify various Viruddha we perform daily can help reduce etiological factors of many diseases & help to maintain balance in gut, mind & overall health.

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